There have been nine micro-quakes with epicenters in Mexico City this month. (UNAM/Cuartoscuro)
Mexico City experienced two micro-earthquakes in the early hours of Thursday after a month of higher-than-usual seismic activity in the capital.
According to the National Seismological Service (SSN), the first quake occurred at 3:33 a.m. in northeastern Magdalena Contreras, with a magnitude of 2.0. The second was felt at 3:49 a.m. in southern Álvaro Obregón, with a magnitude of 1.7. A brief 1.7-quake was also recorded at around the same hour on Tuesday, Dec. 26. The movements were perceptible but slight, and no damage has been reported.
Last night’s micro-quakes (marked with a green dot) originated in the same area of Mexico City where most of this year’s micro-quakes have occurred. (ssn.unam.mx)
Mexico City has experienced an unusual number of micro-earthquakes during this month. On Dec. 12, four micro-quakes were recorded in the west of the city, the strongest of which caused minor damage to buildings. Two days later,two micro-quakes of 3.2 and 2.4 magnitude hit Álvaro Obregón. The former was the strongest felt in Mexico City this year.
These minor seismic events are very common and not typically a cause for concern. The SSN has registered 81 micro-quakes in the capital this year, including a succession of small quakes in May and a 3-magnitude quake in San Antonio Tecómitl, one of the borough of Milpa Alta’s 12 towns, in July.
The increased seismic activity in Mexico City in December has sparked rumors that the quakes could be caused by human activity, such as water extraction. However, experts consider this unlikely, as these human activities are limited to a few hundred meters’ depth, whereas micro-quakes originate at a depth of 3 to 5 kilometers and large quakes start even deeper underground.
Rather, seismologist Víctor Manuel Cruz of the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) told the newspaper El Universal, the recent seismic activity is likely due to small ruptures in the tectonic plates below Mexico City caused by larger past events, such as the 2017 Puebla earthquake.
Although these small quakes are not considered cause for concern, residents should remember that, in the event of a larger earthquake, it is important to stay calm, keep away from windows or objects that may fall and follow recommendations from local authorities.
This iconic bread takes center stage during Día de los Reyes Magos on Jan 6. (Canva)
There’s no better way to understand a country than by biting into its holiday foods. In Mexico, that means sinking your teeth into the sweet, symbolic goodness of the Rosca de Reyes, Latin America’s answer to king cake in Louisiana and Quebec’s gâteau des rois. Its layers of tradition, candied fruits and hidden surprises make this pastry a wonderful reason to gather and celebrate with family and friends.
This iconic bread takes center stage during Día de los Reyes Magos on Jan 6, the Christian feast day known in English as the Epiphany or Three Kings’ Day, commemorating the Magi’s visit. According to the Gospel of Matthew, the three Wise Men known as Gaspar, Melchor and Balthasar traveled following a bright star to meet the baby Jesus in Bethlehem, bringing with them gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh.
The evening of Jan. 5 marks the twelfth night of Christmas and is when figures of the three Magi are added to the nativity scene. In Mexico, as in many other Latin American countries, it has traditionally been the Wise Men, not Santa Claus, who bring gifts on Christmas.
What are the origins of the Rosca de Reyes tradition?
The roots of the Rosca de Reyes tradition extend deep into history and are believed to originate with the Roman year-end agricultural festival of Saturnalia. That celebration included eating cake with a coin or other small token hidden inside that bestowed symbolic kingship for a day to the lucky person who bit into the treasure.
This custom evolved in medieval Europe when the Rosca became associated with Epiphany. Whoever found a hidden fava bean in their slice of cake was obligated to treat all the attendees to a round of drinks. The edible treasure was eventually replaced with porcelain to prevent the finder from hiding their responsibility in their belly.
What does the Rosca de Reyes symbolize?
In modern Mexico, the Rosca de Reyes is always oval, symbolizing the infinite circle of God’s love. Candied fruits, such as figs, quince, and cherries, are baked as toppings and symbolize the jewels in the crowns of the Three Wise Men. Hiding the baby Jesus in the bread represents the time when the Holy Family was fleeing from the Massacre of the Innocents – the execution of Bethlehem’s male infants ordered by Herod I.
The excitement on Jan. 6 is tangible as friends gather around a lively table with the Rosca de Reyes at its center. Hot cocoa, milk and coffee add to the delight. The anticipation in the room is palpable as the host slices into the bread. The air is thick with the sweet aroma and every slice is a roll of the dice. Who will be the fortunate guest to choose the slice with a hidden treasure? The room holds its breath while everyone takes a bite. When the figurine emerges, cheers erupt and the party begins.
If you are the one to find it, congratulations! In Mexican tradition, the person who finds the figurine of the baby Jesus becomes responsible for hosting a tamal feast on February 2, Día de la Candelaria or Candlemas Day, commemorating the infant Jesus’ presentation at the Temple in Jerusalem. This makes everyone look forward to gathering again and sharing another delicious meal one month later.
How is Rosca de Reyes made?
The traditional preparation of the Mexican Rosca de Reyes involves a blend of ingredients that contribute to the richness of this holiday bread. The dough is crafted from all-purpose flour, sugar and milk. Butter and eggs create a luscious spongy texture similar to brioche bread. The Rosca’s aroma is enhanced by adding vanilla extract and the zesty brightness of orange blossom water or orange peel.
Topping the Rosca is a combination of softened butter and sugar, creating a sweet and slightly crumbly crust that envelopes the golden bread. The vibrant candied fruits add to the visual feast and all ingredients combine to create a delightful and culturally significant treat.
It is estimated that more than 4 million Roscas de Reyes are sold nationwide every year. The National Chamber of the Baking Industry (Canainpa) indicates that Rosca de Reyes sales generate more than 2.25 billion pesos or 20% of this industry’s annual income.
For expats, embracing the Rosca de Reyes tradition is an invitation to celebrate with neighbors. So next Sunday, seek out the best bakery near you, gather amigos, bite into sugary tradition, and savor the taste of Mexico.
Sandra is a Mexican writer and translator based in San Miguel de Allende who specializes in mental health and humanitarian aid. She believes in the power of language to foster compassion and understanding across cultures. She can be reached at: [email protected]
While Mexico's president said the meeting led to "important agreements," the details have yet to be released. (lopezobrador.org.mx)
President Andrés Manuel López Obrador said Wednesday that Mexico and the United States reached “important agreements” at a migration-focused meeting in Mexico City, but provided few details about the deals.
As large numbers of migrants continue to enter the United States via Mexico, López Obrador, Foreign Affairs Minister Alicia Bárcena and other Mexican officials met at the National Palace with a U.S. delegation that included Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Secretary of Homeland Security Alejandro Mayorkas and Homeland Security Advisor Elizabeth Sherwood-Randall.
President López Obrador hosted the U.S. delegation on Wednesday at the National Palace. (Lopez Obrador/X)
“We asked President Biden to meet with the [U.S. officials] … to directly deal with matters of economic cooperation, security and migration,” López Obrador said in a social media post on Wednesday evening.
“Important agreements were reached for the benefit of our people and nations. Now more than ever the good neighbor policy is essential,” he wrote.
Asked about the agreements at his morning press conference on Thursday, López Obrador – who spoke to Biden about migration last week – said that Mexico has to be “attentive so that [border] crossings aren’t closed,” but didn’t specify what that meant.
“This agreement was reached. The railway crossings and the border bridges are being opened, to normalize the situation,” he said six days after the United States reopened two rail bridges between Mexico and Texas that were closed on Monday last week to allow U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) to redeploy personnel to assist operations to detain migrants.
President López Obrador said that an agreement had been reached to reopen railway crossings to “normalize the situation” after closures last week. (Cuartoscuro)
“… We also spoke about attention to the causes of migration, support for countries where people have to abandon their towns out of necessity, to search for work,” López Obrador said, adding that Mexican officials outlined Mexico’s efforts to stem migration via the implementation of employment programs in other countries in the region.
“They’re also doing their thing, they told us about that,” he said before acknowledging that the U.S. has opened up more legal migration pathways.
López Obrador – who in 2019 deployed the National Guard to increase enforcement against migrants after then U.S. president Donald Trump threatened to impose blanket tariffs on Mexican imports – also acknowledged that the U.S. is “overwhelmed” with new arrivals “because there are a lot of needs in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.”
“There is poverty, and the people look for better living and working conditions with migration,” he said.
An estimated 6,000 migrants departed Tapachula on Christmas Eve, as a new caravan took its first steps towards the U.S.-Mexico border. (Damián Sánchez/Cuartoscuro)
According to unnamed senior U.S. officials cited in a CNN report, Mexico shared plans in the talks to crack down on migrant smugglers.
“… That was really aligned with the things that we’ve been focused on as well. Things like the need to really crack down on the smugglers that are putting migrants on buses, putting migrants on trains. We’ve seen that really contribute to the increase that we’ve seen at the border … in recent weeks,” a Biden administration official said.
López Obrador, who continues to use the National Guard to detain migrants, said last week that the United States wants his government to do more to stop migrants moving through Mexico to the U.S. after entering the country via the southern border with Guatemala.
Bárcena said on the X social media platform on Wednesday that the aim of the meeting with U.S. officials was to “strengthen the economic and political relationship between Mexico and the United States with agreements to cooperate on the structural causes of migration.”
She told reporters outside the National Palace that officials spoke about “the importance of reopening border crossings.”
Foreign Affairs Minister Bárcena receives U.S. Secretary of State Blinken in Mexico City. (Alicia Bárcena/X)
In addition to suspending operations at railway bridges in Eagle Pass and El Paso, U.S. authorities have recently closed vehicle and pedestrian ports of entry in Texas, California and Arizona amid a surge of migrant arrivals at the border.
Bárcena said that the reopening of all border crossings “is a priority for us.”
Her counterpart, Secretary Blinken, said on X that “shared efforts to reduce irregular migration” were discussed at Wednesday’s meeting.
He said that the United States “made clear in Mexico City” that it is “committed to partnering with Mexico to address our shared challenges, including managing unprecedented irregular migration in the region, reopening key ports of entry, and combating illicit fentanyl and other synthetic drugs.”
For his part, Mayorkas said on X that the meeting was “very productive.”
“… The regional challenge of migration requires regional solutions, and we appreciate Mexico’s commitment to continue its efforts alongside us and with others,” he wrote.
Republican Party presidential candidates at a primary debate (from left): Chris Christie, Nikki Haley, Ron DeSantis, Vivek Ramaswamy and Tim Scott. (Screen capture)
Migration is set to be a key issue in the United States presidential election in 2024.
Biden has come under sustained pressure this year from Republican Party politicians who assert that his administration isn’t doing enough to secure the the United States’ southern border.
President López Obrador with the leaders of Colombia, Cuba, Venezuela, Haiti and Honduras. (Presidencia de la República)
While the Mexican and United States governments have spoken about migration on several occasions this year, Mexico has also been speaking with other countries in the region.
In October, López Obrador hosted a regional migration summit in Palenque, Chiapas, at which the governments of 10 countries, including those of Mexico, Venezuela, Cuba and Colombia, agreed to 14 points to “jointly confront the migration reality” they face.
While the federal government sees the United States as an important part of the solution to the migration problem – with López Obrador repeatedly urging the U.S. Congress to approve additional funding aimed at addressing the root causes of migration – it also believes it has contributed to it.
At the conclusion of the Palenque summit, the governments in attendance sent a clear message to the U.S. in a joint statement: “lift unilateral coercive measures imposed on countries of the region,” such as the embargo against Cuba that has been in place for over six decades.
AdoptAxolotl is a university campaign to conserve the Mexican axolotl in the wild. (UNAM)
The axolotl (ambystoma mexicanum) is a fascinating and mysterious animal native to Mexico City’s once plentiful waterways. Today, this salamander still inhabits the canals of Xochimilco, and the residents of this area are actively involved in its conservation efforts.
One of them is Jesús Correa Rangel, who plays a crucial role in preserving axolotls. His house serves as a breeding center for these unique creatures and attracts numerous tourists who explore the canals of Xochimilco.
Jesús Correa Rangel at Ajolotario Apantli. (Ana Paula de la Torre)
Jesús follows a dedicated routine to ensure the well-being of the axolotls under his care. He starts his day early, around 7 a.m., and opens the doors of the axolotl center for any visiting tourists. He meticulously monitors the temperature, filtration, and lighting of the tanks where the axolotls reside.
Maintaining optimal water quality is of utmost importance, and Jesús regularly measures various parameters such as pH, hardness, nitrites, nitrates, ammonium, CO2, oxygen, and chlorine. Additionally, he conducts physical checks on the axolotls to ensure their health and wellness.
Jesús’s efforts are part of a larger conservation initiative aimed at preserving the axolotl population. Organizations like the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) classify these unique creatures as endangered species. Their decline can be attributed to various factors, including habitat degradation, pollution, overfishing, the introduction of non-native predators, and the pet trade.
Fortunately, the axolotls have thrived in captivity due to their incredible adaptability. This has allowed for successful conservation efforts in places like Xochimilco.
Living with axolotls, the story of Jesús Correa Rangel
Jesús Correa Rangel has dedicated his life to the care and conservation of axolotls. His family opened the Ajolotario Apantliin Xochimilco, a center dedicated to breeding, studying, and preserving the axolotl. Jesús plays a crucial role in the center and is actively involved in efforts to save the salamanders from extinction.
The Ajolotario Apantli has been working tirelessly for 36 years, helmed by Jesús during the last 18. The project was established to protect the endemic flora and fauna of Xochimilco and the Ajolotario Apantli can reproduce and grow up to 1,000 axolotls per year.
“This project was born to protect Xochimilco’s endemic flora and fauna. For our family, it was a way to preserve our ecosystem and keep our identity and way of life next to the canals of Xochimilco,” Jesús told Mexico News Daily.
This animal can regenerate its bones, muscles, internal organs, and brain. (BlogXcaret)
Just 20 years ago, the extent of the danger to the axolotl population of Xochimilco was unknown. However, today efforts to save this species come from both academic and civil initiatives. The Ajolotario Apantli and the “Adopt an Axolotl” campaign led by UNAM are examples of these conservation efforts.
“Part of the conservation process is that when the axolotls are big enough, we take them to a secret canal in Xochimilco where they are released away from pollution and fishermen,” Jesús explains.
Other conservation initiatives in Xochimilco
There are also other initiatives for the conservation of the axolotl in Xochimilco. UNAM, Mexico’s largest public university, has launched the “Adopt an Axolotl ” campaign to promote conservation efforts in the area. Additionally, other ajolotarios, such as Ajolotario Tlazocamati Tonantzin, PIMVS Ajolotario, Ajolotario UMA Atlicuilco, and Ajolotario Xochimilco, play their part in the conservation of the axolotl. Many of the workers in these ajolotarios are also involved in the cultivation of food in the chinampas, a traditional farming system in the area.
Involving the local community in the conservation efforts for the axolotl in Xochimilco is essential. People here have a unique connection to the ecosystem and can play a crucial role in its preservation. Raising awareness, promoting sustainable practices, and involving the community in conservation initiatives increase the chances of successfully protecting the axolotl and its habitat. This collective effort can help ensure the long-term survival of this fascinating species.
Ana Paula de la Torre is a Mexican journalist and collaborator of various media such as Milenio, Animal Político, Vice, Newsweek en Español, Televisa and Mexico News Daily.
Mexican grain production has declined in 2023, leading to increased imports of staple grains. (Darla Hueske/Unsplash)
Widespread drought is forcing Mexico to import greater quantities of grains for both human and animal consumption.
According to agriculture consultancy Grupo Consultor de Mercados Agrícolas (GCMA), Mexico imported a record high of 37.44 million tonnes of grains and oil producing plants in the first 11 months of the year, an 8.8% increase compared to the same period of 2022.
Poor farming conditions and drought have led to crop failures across Mexico. (Juan Pablo Zamora/Sader/Cuartoscuro)
Drought – which affected three-quarters of national territory in late September – and a resultant decline in national agricultural output has left Mexico with no choice other than to buy more grain abroad.
GCMA data shows that:
Corn imports increased 16.9% between January and November to a record high of 18.2 million tonnes.
Oatmeal imports increased 27.6% to 248,000 tonnes.
Wheat imports increased 6.9% to 5.1 million tonnes.
Barley imports increased 13.6% to 734,000 tonnes.
Canola imports increased 31.8% to 1.3 million tonnes.
GCMA also noted that imports of soybeans, sorghum and rice all declined.
Some industry analysts believe that food imports will be even higher in 2024. (Joaquín Sanluis/Cuartoscuro)
Juan Carlos Anaya, general director of GCMA, predicted that 2024 will be another year of record grain imports due to “the lack of water, mainly in Sinaloa, Tamaulipas and Sonora.”
He said that corn imports are expected to total 19.5 million tonnes this year, and predicted that the figure will rise to a new record of almost 22 million tonnes in 2024 due to lower production in Mexico.
In October, the Agriculture Ministry (SADER) forecast that domestic production of white corn would fall 1.2% this year to 22.9 million tonnes, and that yellow corn production would decline 12.4% to 2.94 million tonnes. SADER had predicted in July that domestic production would increase.
Mexico depends heavily on yellow corn imports from the United States to feed livestock.
The two countries are currently involved in a dispute over Mexico’s plan to ban the importation of GM corn for use in dough and tortillas by 2024 and gradually phase out imports of GM maize for any kind of human consumption and for use as animal feed at an unspecified later date depending on supply.
GCMA data shows that 88.3% of the 19.5 million tonnes of corn Mexico imported in the first 11 months of the year came from the United States, while 9.6% was shipped here from Brazil. The remaining 2.1% came from South Africa, Canada and Argentina, GCMA said.
It was a bumper year for Mexican archaeology, with public works projects uncovering lost cities, burial grounds and prehistoric birds. (Martín Zetina/Cuartoscuro)
From pre-Columbian cities to a fossilized flamingo egg, Mexico’s rich and diverse history and varied environmental landscape have made it an exciting year for archaeologists.
Below are some of the highlights of discoveries made across Mexico in 2023.
The Chapultepec burials mark the first discoveries of changing burial rituals in Mexico, from Mexica to Catholic. (INAH)
In February, a 16th-century cemetery was found in Mexico City’s Chapultepec Park, believed to date from less than 100 years after the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlán (Mexico City).
The cemetery was discovered during construction work in the park. The bodies had been buried at three different times, but all after Tenochtitlán’s fall in 1535. Researchers said some were buried in the Catholic style, while others followed Mesoamerican traditions.
This led archaeologists to believe that some of the deceased were European individuals, while others were Mexica. Tests revealed that they had suffered from various conditions, including malnutrition, infections, and bone inflammation.
The remarkably well-preserved statue was uncovered during road paving work in Veracruz. It is believed to depict a local female ruler. (INAH)
Over the summer, a sculpture resembling the “Young Woman of Amajac” – one of the most important recent pre-Columbian archaeological finds – was discovered during road-paving work in a town in Veracruz.
The remarkably well-preserved statue stands at 1.54 meters high and weighs between 200 and 250 kilograms, slightly smaller than the 2-meter-high previous find.
Both statues wear headdresses with similar decorations, leading experts to hypothesize that they may represent the same figure, possibly a female Huasteca ruler.
Archaeologists believe the city dates to the Classic period, which lasted from A.D. 250–1,000. It was discovered as part of wide-ranging archaeological work carried out alongside the construction of the Maya Train. (INAH/Cuartoscuro)
June saw a major discovery in the Yucatán Península.
Hidden in the jungle inthe southeastern state of Campeche, is a “monumental site” as described by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), which was dubbed Ocomtún, meaning “stone column” in the Yucatec Mayan language.
The pre-Columbian city is located within the Balamkú ecological reserve in the municipality of Calakmul.
The city was found thanks to the laser surveying techniques, which experts used to scan the area where Ocomtún was found.
According to archaeologists, the site served as an important regional hub, most likely during the Classic period of ancient Maya civilization, which lasted from 250-1,000 A.D.
The extremely rare fossilized egg was found at during construction work at the Felipe Ángeles airport. (INAH)
In August, a flamingo egg dating from the last ice age was found during construction work at the Felipe Ángeles International Airport in Mexico City.
INAH officials said the remarkably preserved egg is incredibly rare, and only the second discovery of its kind in the world – the first in the Americas.
The presence of the egg suggests that an ancient shallow lake existed in the area between 8,000 and 33,000 years ago.
The fossilized egg is 93.5 mm (3.7 inches) by 55.8 mm (2.2 inches).
Ten tombs containing the remains of five people were found in Chapultepec Park earlier this year. They are believed to date back at least 3,500 years. (INAH)
Back in Chapultepec Park, archaeologists found another series of far older graves, dating back 3,500 years, during construction work on Line 3 of the Cablebus, near Avenida Constituyentes.
These include 10 conical or bell tombs half containing human remains, indicating the existence of a village in the area during the Early and Middle Preclassic periods (2,500-400 B.C.).
The discovery of the tombs is additional evidence of early human habitation in the area, after artifacts dating to the same era were unearthed there last year.
Mexico will send microbots to the moon, as part of NASA's Artemis program. (UNAM/Cuartoscuro)
The countdown has begun on Mexico’s first mission to the moon. The launch of a rocket that will include five Mexican microbots will occur on Jan. 8 in Cape Canaveral, Florida — as long as atmospheric conditions are right and other technical factors are in order.
Created by a team of Mexican scientists and nearly 250 university students, the microbots each weigh about 60 grams and are 12 cm in diameter — a tad smaller than a standard saucer for a coffee cup.
A render of what the projected lander – and it’s launch vehicle – will look like. (Gob. Mex.)
On the moon, the bots will recognize one another, connect electronically and then assemble a panel that can generate energy. The project is dubbed “Colmena,” which means beehive in Spanish.
“This project will make history and is the first of its kind in Latin America,” Salvador Landeros, director of the Mexican Space Agency (AEM), said in a Dec. 22 press release. The project “speaks very well of Mexico, confirming once again that Mexican engineering is at the level of the best in the world,” he added.
The project is part of Mexico’s participation in the Artemis program, led by the United States’ National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in conjunction with six other space agencies around the globe. Formalized in late 2022, Artemis also includes emerging space programs in countries such as Brazil, South Korea and Mexico.
The Mexican microbots were developed in the Space Instrumentation Laboratory of the Institute of Nuclear Sciences (LINX-ICN), part of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Joint support has come from the AEM, the National Council of Humanities, Science and Technology (CONAHCYT) and the central Mexican state of Hidalgo.
The mission will blast off from Cape Canaveral next month. (Bill Jelen/Unsplash)
“Developing our own technology is a necessity for the country,” said Gustavo Medina Tanco, head of LINX. “We need to not be just consumers, and transform the country into an actor with technological sovereignty.”
The microbots will travel inside Peregrine, a lunar lander developed by Pittsburgh-based space robotics company. Peregrine, the first private U.S. spacecraft to be launched as part of NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services program, will also carry some 20 other NASA and commercial payloads.
The lander has been fueled and mated with the United Launch Alliance’s Vulcan Centaur rocket on the launchpad. ULA is a U.S.-based aerospace manufacturer and defense contractor. A launch during the Jan. 8-11 window would set up a landing as early as Feb. 23. The lander will not go directly to the lunar surface, but rather enter the moon’s orbit and wait for the lighting to be correct for landing.
The Mexican team had hoped to send its tiny robots into space in 2022, but delays occurred, including a scrapped launch earlier this month due to an interrupted “wet dress rehearsal.” After communicating and setting up power, the UNAM gazette reported last year, the robots will begin taking measurements that have never been taken before, including lunar plasma temperature and the size of particles floating just above the moon’s dusty surface.
What is the history of alcohol production and consumption in Mexico? (Canva)
For many of us, banning alcohol is strongly associated with conservative Protestant Christian thought, itself a result of temperance movements in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Mexico never had a “Prohibition” like the U.S., but its current reputation as a drinking and partying haven is not entirely accurate either.
The history of alcohol usage in Mexico is a mix of restrictions and tolerance, but their bases have varied depending on the social and cultural landscape. One constant is the dominating role of the country’s many agave species, beginning in pre-history and continuing to the present day.
Agave, Mesoamerica and religion
The longest-documented alcohol in Mexico is pulque, the fermented sap of certain agave (magüey) plants prevalent in the central Mexico highlands. The plant has its own goddess, Mayahuel (depicted with her own vessel of pulque in the Laud Codex). But the drink also appears in a story about Quetzalcoatl, who committed a sexual transgression while drunk, and was eventually banished, effectively a morality story against wanton consumption.
The records also indicate that its consumption was highly restricted by both social rank and ceremonial purposes for aged and pregnant women and was also used as a kind of “reward” for great deeds. Breaking these rules was heavily punished and could mean death even for high-ranking priests.
Colonial period
The Spanish and the rest of the old order swept away all these prohibitions. This meant pulque was not banned for the general public, but it did become stigmatized as something only for the most marginalized segment of society – which remains to this day.
To replace it, the Spanish quickly introduced crops to create the beverages they knew – sugar cane, apple, grains and grapes for wine.
Under pressure from wineries in Spain, the Crown forbade all alcoholic beverage production in 1595. This prohibition (and its avoidance) shaped Mexico’s drinking habits.
Only the very rich could afford imported alcohol, and the edict had its intended effect on alcohol made from cultivated crops. Beer and coconut wine disappeared. Cider and rum nearly did. As it was necessary for communion, wine production for the Church was allowed – one reason why Casa Madero, Mexico’s oldest winery, survived in Coahuila. But in general, there would be no commercial wine production in Mexico until the late 20th century
That left agave. Growing wild in just about all of Mexico, it became the basis of almost all alcohol production – legal and illegal – to this day. Pulque survived, but more importantly, the cactus would be used for distilled spirits of various names – the most common of which is “mezcal.”
Authorities could not eliminate the plant, nor the basic distillation technology required to ferment it. Colonial records show a mix of suppression (prosecution) and tolerance (tax collection), but their accuracy is questionable given the industry’s clandestine nature and bribery of local officials.
Post-Independence
Social reorganization hit Mexico again during the struggle for independence in the early 19th century, but the mass importation or production of non-agave alcohol would not immediately follow.
Modernization and Europeanization efforts by the Porfirio Díaz dictatorship of 1884-1910 is responsible for one major change – the rise of beer.
The symbol of progress during the late 19th century was the railroad. Lines connected Mexico City to haciendas in the provinces, allowing the very profitable shipping of perishable pulque into the capital.
Its consumption among the lower classes became visible, leading to a backlash from more elite sectors of society. A crusade against pulque began, blaming it for the social ills of the lower classes, including their perceived resistance to “modernization.” Pulque was also accused of being a health issue, with claims that feces were used in its production.
Simultaneously, German and French brewers reintroduced beer to Mexico on a large scale. As with all things European, it was embraced by the same elite who had shunned pulque, and makers took advantage to promote beer as the civilized alternative. Breweries appeared in various parts of the country. Today, modern brands like Montejo and Tecate hearken back to these breweries.
What remained of the pulque industry that had survived the bad press and the Mexican Revolution collapsed shortly after, when the new government dismantled the hacienda system.
Northwest “moonshine” and smuggling
The Revolution had one other significant effect on Mexican alcohol consumption – the rise of “moonshine” in the west/northwest.
The years that followed the revolution marked the height of temperance movements in the West. Mexico never had a national “Prohibition,” but northern Revolution-era generals were aware of them and were sympathetic to the ban across the border.
Pancho Villa was particularly anti-alcohol, keen to promote military readiness and general social welfare. This forced several regional spirits – bacanora in Sonora, sotol in Chihuahua and raicilla in Jalisco underground yet again. Their suppression would not fully end until the 1990s.
This may seem odd given that northern Mexico took advantage of US Prohibition to make and smuggle whiskey and set up bars all along the border. But “Mexican moonshine” was produced by and for the most marginalized, making them vulnerable to large-scale crackdowns by regional rulers.
Modern era
Marketing expert Ricardo Pico and master distiller don Eduardo Arrieta share a NocheLuna mezcal, which they produce by traditional methods in Chihuahua (credit Leigh Thelmadatter)
The past decades have been far kinder to Mexican alcohol makers, both economically and culturally.
Bars along the border introduced Americans to tequila, and by the mid-20th century, the drink was internationally known. Tequila and the tourism industry would open the door for other drinks, notably commercial beer (like Corona) in the 1980s and mezcal in the 2000s.
New beverages are being introduced, including whiskeys featuring Mexico’s heritage corn varieties and a craft beer industry that is now coming into its own.
All this comes with social and legal blessings because alcohol is highly profitable and Mexico now takes pride in products that conserve its heritage and promote its agriculture. This newfound “prestige” means that more people, from more strata of society are getting involved.
Pulque remains a very niche market, but that is due to its highly perishable nature. But major cities in and near pulque-producing areas have seen the rise of “neo-cantinas” where younger drinkers can congregate, and this has helped the drink to remain relevant, even in the 21st century.
Leigh Thelmadatter arrived in Mexico over 20 years ago and fell in love with the land and the culture in particular its handcrafts and art. She is the author of Mexican Cartonería: Paper, Paste and Fiesta (Schiffer 2019). Her culture column appears regularly on Mexico News Daily.
Latin American literature is having a big moment. Here are some of the authors you need to read. (Unsplash)
Latin American literature is booming with women writers who are exploring exciting and innovative ways of telling stories.
In 2020, The New York Times highlighted “The Adventures of China Iron” by Argentine writer and activist Gabriela Cabezón Cámara as one of the best Ibero-American fiction books of the year, a work that made her a finalist for the International Booker Prize.
One year prior, author Valeria Luiselli was the first writer from Mexico and the fifth woman ever to win the Dublin Literary Award for her book “Lost Children Archive.” The Guadalajara International Book Fair, the largest book fair in the Americas, has awarded the Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz prize to Latin American storytellers for the past five years straight.
Accordingly, most of the books listed below were written by women, as it is an open secret within the literary world that women are the ones leading contemporary Latin American literature today.
Fernanda Melchor, “Hurricane Season,” translated by Sophia Hughes
(4 Goodreads stars)
The Witch is a woman who hosts parties at her isolated home, helping the women of the town when they need abortions – always refusing their money when they try to pay her. When she dies, the town enters a storm of darkness.
Melchor’s novel is raw and overwhelming with emotions. The story is separated into eight long monologues where the characters recount their stories of rage, violence, madness, suffering, abuse, fear and death. “Hurricane Season” takes place in a world where real violence seeps into the soil, poisoning everything around.
A reader wrote on Goodreads: “That was so far removed from my comfort zone, I now need to watch the Disney channel for a month.”
Yuri Herrera, “Signs Preceding the End of the World,” translated by Lisa Dillman
(3.9 Goodreads stars)
Francisco Goldman has called Yuri Herrera “Mexico’s greatest novelist.” In this book, Herrera has written a lyric novel: the story of Makina, a young Mexican woman who crosses the United States border hoping to find her brother – and to deliver a package from the Mexican underworld. It is a surrealist, strange tale that interrogates issues of immigration, language and translation. The book is fast and will leave you feeling thoughtful and slightly unsettled.
The book must have been a difficult challenge for the translator, so much so that she felt she had to explain some of her word choices in an afterword. Herrera uses a mixture of slang and allusive poetic descriptions and often uses words in strange new ways. As a result, Lisa Dillman’s choice of English words often seem very odd.
Jazmina Barrera, “On Lighthouses,” translated by Christina McSweeney
(3.8 Goodreads stars)
This memoir-of-sorts consists of six chapters, all centered around a different lighthouse – the oceanfront towers the author has visited, researched, read about and pondered. Barrera expresses her love for, or “collection,” of lighthouses using personal anecdotes, history and quotes from other books featuring lighthouses.
Barrera visits the Montauk Lighthouse, talks to the children of lighthouse keepers and analyzes literary works by Virginia Woolf and Edgar Allan Poe. What do lighthouses stand for in history and our collective consciousness? Barrera creates a thoughtful, reflective melding of memoir, history, travel writing and literary inquiry, linking her reflections to her fears, her experiences living in a city and the way she looks for a guide in the form of a lighthouse.
Laia Jufresa, “Umami,” translated by Sophia Hughes
(3.7 Goodreads stars)
“Umami” is one of my favorite novels of all time – a multi-voice story about grief, loss and missed opportunities told by the people living in the same building in Mexico City. This story takes place in a middle-class Mexican neighborhood and unfolds via the interactions of its inhabitants after tragedy strikes. Jufresa’s writing forces you to pay attention; voices and timelines change without any warning, so you must be present to fully enjoy the literary treat that is “Umami.”
Cristina Rivera Garza, “The Iliac Crest,” translated by Sarah Booker
(3.6 Goodreads stars)
Cristina Rivera Garza is a Mexican journalist who writes about injustice, gender violence and forced disappearance.
“The Iliac Crest” is a short poetic novel about the disappearance of several women over many years. On a stormy night, two mysterious women invade the narrator’s house, where they proceed to question their host’s gender and identity ruthlessly, both refusing to leave the narrator’s house. Here, Rivera Garza plays with gender fluidity and identity. It is sure to spark a lot of thought.
Valeria Luiselli, “Faces in the Crowd,” translated by Christina MacSweeney
(3.5 Goodreads stars)
Like most of Luiselli’s work, this novel is a study in fragmentary feeling. In Mexico City, a woman writes a book about her life as a translator in New York. In Philadelphia, Gilberto Owen recalls his friendship with the Spanish poet García Lorca and the young woman he saw in the windows of passing trains. In Harlem, a translator is desperate to publish the works of Gilberto Owen, an obscure Mexican poet.
“Faces in the Crowd” is a book of overlapping fictions and timelines; a story of a woman who, while translating others’ stories, may also be telling her own. Valeria Luiselli speaks to the nature of reality, identity, memories and time in this book.
Camila Sánchez Bolaño is a journalist, feminist, bookseller, lecturer, and cultural promoter and is Editor in Chief of Newsweek en Español magazine.
Automotive exports from Mexico continue their booming post-pandemic recovery. (Shutterstock)
The value of Mexico’s automotive sector exports increased by a double-digit percentage for the third consecutive year in the first 11 months of 2023 to reach a record high of almost US $173 billion.
Data published by the national statistics agency INEGI shows that auto exports were worth $172.68 billion between January and November, a 14.4% increase compared to the same period of 2022.
The value of automotive exports from January to November went up 14.4% from 2022. (Mireya Novo/Cuartoscuro)
The strong growth in the value of auto exports came after even bigger increases in the first 11 months of the past two years: 18.6% in 2022 and 16% in 2021.
Auto exports slumped 19.3% between January and November 2020 as the coronavirus pandemic and associated restrictions took a heavy toll on the sector.
What percentage of Mexico’s total export revenue comes from auto exports?
INEGI data shows that Mexico’s exports were worth $543.76 billion in the first 11 months of the year. Auto sector exports, including vehicles and parts, contributed 31.8% of the total.
Mexico’s automotive industry was battered by the COVID-19 pandemic, but has shown double-digit annual growth in 2021, 2022 and this year. (Volkswagen México)
In other words, almost one in three export dollars earned in 2023 came from auto exports.
The total value of exported products made by Mexico’s diverse manufacturing sector was $484.85 billion between January and November, or 89.2% of total export revenue.
Auto sector exports accounted for 35.6% of the total manufacturing sector export revenue.
The auto sector’s contribution to Mexico’s GDP
According to the United States Department of Commerce (DOC), “the automotive sector is one of Mexico’s most significant industries, comprising 3.6 percent of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 18 percent of the manufacturing GDP, and employing over one million people nationwide.”
In a “country commercial guide” published last month, the DOC also said that Mexico is the world’s seventh-largest passenger vehicle manufacturer, making 3.5 million vehicles per year.
“Eighty-eight percent of vehicles produced in Mexico are exported, with 76 percent destined for the United States,” the department said.
“Established automakers in Mexico include Audi, BMW, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, Jac by Giant Motors, Kia, Mazda, Mercedes Benz, Nissan, Stellantis, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Tesla, which recently announced a new plant to be built in the state of Nuevo León as part of its electric vehicle production.”
DOC also said that Mexico is the fourth largest producer of auto parts in the world, “generating US $107 billion in annual revenues.”
Where are automakers located in Mexico?
Automotive manufacturers are “primarily concentrated in the northern region of Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and San Luis Potosí,” the DOC said.
“Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) plants are also based in Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, México state, Hidalgo, Morelos, and Puebla,” it added.
“In terms of supply chains, auto parts producers are located close to these plants, primarily in Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Puebla, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, and México state, although they are also found in other parts of the country.”
Tesla is one of the major EV manufacturers coming to Mexico. (Tesla/X)
Is the future of Mexico’s auto sector electric?
The DOC noted that the market for electric vehicles, or EVs, is “evolving rapidly in Mexico as automakers have announced ambitious strategic goals to transition their offerings from gasoline to electric vehicles.”
“… While the market for EVs and hybrids totaled only 51,065 units in 2022, this represented a growth of 8.5 percent compared to 2021,” the department said.
BMW, Tesla and Volkswagen are among the automakers with plans to make EVs in Mexico.
Electric vehicles are “the future of the automotive industry,” President López Obrador said during a visit to BMW’s San Luis Potosí plant in February.
“The day will come when you won’t be able to sell vehicles that are not powered by renewable energy. … The future is in lithium, in batteries, in chips, in electric cars – that is the future,” he said.
